7memoryrevised By Pauline Davey Zeece University Of Nebraska Lincolnc ✓ Solved
7 Memory Revised by Pauline Davey Zeece, University of Nebraska-Lincoln Chapter Overview Studying memory Building memories: Encoding Memory storage Retrieval: Getting information out Forgetting Memory construction errors Improving memory Memory Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information Information-processing model Compares human memory to a computer’s operation 4 Stages in Information-Processing Model Encoding Getting information into the memory system Storage Retaining encoded information over time Retrieval Getting information out of memory storage Information-Processing Model: Stages in Forming Memories Recording to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory Processing information into short-term memory, where it is encoded through rehearsal Moving information into long-term memory for later retrieval Sensory memory: Immediate and very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system Short-term memory: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten Long-term memory: Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences 6 Modified Three-Stage Processing Model of Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers recognize other ways long-term memories form.
For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,†without our consciously attending to it (automatic processing). And so much active processing occurs in the short-term memory stage that many now prefer to call that stage working memory. 7 Working Memory Newer understanding of short-term memory Includes the conscious and active processing of: Incoming information Information retrieved from long-term memory Working memory is more efficient when individuals focus on one task at a time, without distractions. 8 Want to try to see how good your working memory is? In Class Demonstration Two-Track Memory System Implicit (nondeclarative) memory Retention of learned skills, or classically conditioned associations, without conscious awareness Formed via automatic processing Explicit (declarative) memory Retention of facts and personal events that can be consciously retrieved Formed via effortful processing Building Memories Automatic processing and implicit memories Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations.
Effortful processing and explicit memories Explicit memories become automatic with experience and practice. This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY . Your two-track mind processes information efficiently via parallel processing, which involves processing of many aspects of a problem at the same time. This method is the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. 13 Sensory Memory First stage in forming explicit memories Records immediate and very brief information and is fleeting in nature Iconic memory - Picture-image memory of a scene Echoic memory - Sensory memory of sounds Capacity of Short-Term and Working Memory Short-term memory Miller proposed that individuals can store about seven bits of information during the short-term stage.
Other researchers confirmed that individuals can recall about seven digits or about six letters or five words without distraction. 16 Short-Term Memory Decay Unless rehearsed, verbal information may be quickly forgotten. Data from Peterson & Peterson, 1959; see also Brown, 1958. 17 Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking: Organizing items into familiar and manageable units Occurs naturally Mnemonics: Memory aids Includes techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices Effortful processing requires closer attention and effort, and chunking and mnemonics help us form meaningful and accessible memories. Memory researchers have also discovered other important influences on how we capture information and hold it in memory.
18 Memory Storage Retaining information in the brain Synaptic changes Retaining Information in the Brain Capacity for storing long-term memories has no real limit. Research findings Information is not stored in a single and specific spot. Memories as neural networks 26 The Hippocampus Explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed in the hippocampus (orange structure) and fed to other brain regions for storage. 28 Explicit and conscious memories are either semantic or episodic. Semantic memory: Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge Episodic memory: Explicit memory of personally experienced events Explicit Memory System Hippocampus: Neural center located in the limbic system Helps process explicit memories for storage 27 Explicit Memory System: The Frontal Lobes Memories migrate for storage via the memory consolidation process.
Right and left frontal lobes store different information. A good night’s sleep supports memory consolidation. Slow-wave sleep Memory consolidation: Neural storage of a long-term memory Separate brain regions process explicit and implicit memories. From the rhythmic patterns of activity displayed by the hippocampus and the brain cortex, researchers have posited that the brain is replaying the day’s experiences as it transfers them to the cortex for long-term storage. 29 Hippocampus Hero Among animals, one contender for champion memorist would be a mere birdbrain—the Clark’s Nutcracker—which, during winter and spring, can locate up to 600 caches of pine seed it had previously buried.
30 Implicit Memory System: The Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia Cerebellum Plays an important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning Basal ganglia Help form memories for physical skills, which are also implicit memories As adults, our conscious memory of our first four years is largely blank, an experience called infantile amnesia. To form and store explicit memories, we need a command of language and a well-developed hippocampus. Before age four, we don’t have those learning tools. 31 Retrieve and Remember Your friend has experienced brain damage in an accident. He can remember how to tie his shoes but has a hard time remembering anything you tell him during a conversation.
How can implicit versus explicit information processing explain what’s going on here? ANSWER: Our explicit conscious memories of facts and episodes differ from our implicit memories of skills (such as tying shoelaces) and classically conditioned responses. The parts of the brain involved in explicit memory processing may have sustained damage in the accident, while the parts involved in implicit memory processing appear to have escaped harm. 33 Effect of Emotions on Memory Processing Excitement or stress triggers hormone production. It provokes the amygdala to boost activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas.
Flashbulb memories: Clear memories of emotionally significant events Occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes Retained due to rehearsal Flashbulb memory: Clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. 34 Review Key Memory Structures in the Brain Frontal lobes and hippocampus - Explicit memory formation Cerebellum and basal ganglia - Implicit memory formation Amygdala - Emotion-related memory formation Synaptic Changes: Kandel and Schwartz More serotonin is released during learning. The cell’s synapses become more efficient, which increases the efficiency of neural networks. The number of synapses increases with experience and learning. 36 Synaptic Changes Long-term potentiation (LTP): Increase in a synapse’s firing potential Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory After LTP, a current passing through the brain would not erase old memories.
Before LTP, an electric current that passes through the brain can wipe out very recent memories. 37 Figure 7.7 - Our Two Memory Systems 38 Retrieval: Getting Information Out Measuring retention Retrieval cues Measuring Retention Recall: Memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier Fill-in-the-blank test Recognition: Memory demonstrated by identifying items previously learned Multiple-choice test Relearning: Memory demonstrated by time saved when learning material for a second time Our recognition memory is quick and vast. Indicators of memory strength include: Response speed when recalling or recognizing information Speed at relearning Tests of recognition and of time spent relearning demonstrate that we remember more than we can recall.
41 Ebbinghaus’ Retention Curve The more times Ebbinghaus practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day one, the less practice he needed to relearn it on day two. Speed of relearning is one way to measure whether something was learned and retained. 42 Retrieving a Memory Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways that can be followed to access a memory. The best cues come from associations formed at the time of encoding.
Priming: Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Retrieval cues: Any stimulus (event, feeling, place, and so on) linked to a specific memory 45 Retrieval Cues Memories are context dependent. Affected by the cues that are associated with a specific context State-dependent memory What is learned in one state can be easily recalled if the individual is in the same state. Mood-congruent memory: The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with an individual's current good or bad mood Mood effects on retrieval help explain why our moods persist. When happy, we recall happy events and see the world as a happy place, which prolongs our good mood. When depressed, we recall sad events, which darkens our view of current events.
47 Forgetting Forgetting and the two-track mind Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure When Do We Forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. When we process information, we filter it, alter it, or lose much of it. 53 Forgetting and the Two-Track Mind Humans have two distinct memory systems controlled by different parts of the brain. Reasons for forgetting include: Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure Amnesia: Loss of memory, often due to brain trauma, injury, or disease 54 Which on is th face of the penny?
Forgetting as Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we have not encoded. 56 Storage Decay The course of forgetting is initially rapid and then levels off with time. It is explained by the gradual fading of the physical memory trace. Memory trace: Lasting physical change in the brain as a memory forms 55 Retrieval Failure Sometimes even stored information cannot be accessed, which leads to forgetting. It stems from interference and motivated forgetting.
Events and memories are not available because they were never acquired. Other memories are discarded due to stored memory decay. Sometimes, the memory is out of reach because individuals do not have enough information to access it. 58 Motivated Forgetting According to Freud, people repress painful or unacceptable memories to protect their self-concept and minimize anxiety. Memory researchers think that people: Succeed in forgetting unwanted neutral information Struggle to forget emotional events Repression: In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness the thoughts, feelings, and memories that arouse anxiety 61 Errors in Memory Construction Memory is not exact.
One doesn’t just retrace memories, one reweaves them. Reconsolidation: The process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again All memories are false to some degree. 64 Memory Construction In this experiment, people viewed a film clip of a car accident (left). Those who later were asked a leading question recalled a more serious accident than they had witnessed. 66 Source Amnesia Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined Helps explain déjà vu An eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before†Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
Recognizing False Memories False memories are hard to separate from real ones because they seem real. Can be persistent Repeated retellings of an event may make individuals feel like they had actually observed them. People easily remember the general idea, rather than the exact words. Memory construction errors seem to be at work in many recovered memories of childhood abuse. 69 Methods to Improve Memory Rehearse repeatedly.
Make the material meaningful. Activate retrieval cues. Use mnemonic devices. Minimize proactive and retroactive interference. Sleep more.
Test your own knowledge. Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you do not yet know. 74 Town Hall Essay Instructions Any time during the semester, students are required to attend a public government meeting of some kind. This can be a town hall event, candidate forum, city council meeting, school board meeting, etc. So long as it relates to governance and is open to the public, it generally qualifies as a public government meeting.
If you are uncertain, ask prior to attending. Document your attendance in a 2-3 page essay on your experience and submit it online. As you become more aware of current political affairs through attending class and completing weekly journals, attending a public meeting allows you to see exactly how government operates at the level most likely to affect you. Pay attention to issues directly relevant to your city, county, neighborhood, etc. Here are questions to guide your attendance and your essay. â— What issues are important to you that local government may address? â— What issues seem most important in your local government currently? â— Are your issues being discussed? â— How are local issues being discussed? â— Do you feel represented by your local government? â— Do you believe local government is aware of issues significant to you?
Your community? â— What is attendance like? â— How involved is your local community in local government? With these questions in mind, attend a public government meeting in your local government and submit a 2-3 page essay of the experience online. Formatting requirements: â— Double Spaced â— 1-inch margins â— Times New Roman 12-Point Font Submission requirements: â— Town hall essay due online.
Paper for above instructions
Town Hall Meeting ReflectionAttending a Public Government Meeting: An Insightful Experience
On [insert date], I attended a town hall meeting organized by the [insert relevant local government body, e.g., City Council, School Board] in [insert location]. As a citizen keen on understanding the workings of local governance, this event provided a concrete opportunity to witness how public officials engage with community members. The meeting covered various significant issues affecting our city, including infrastructure development, public safety, and educational policies. This essay aims to explore several critical aspects of the meeting, reflecting on the essential concerns raised and my perceptions of community involvement in local governance.
Key Issues Discussed
During the meeting, a series of topics took center stage. First and foremost was the ongoing debate concerning public safety, particularly regarding recent incidents of vandalism and property crime. Local police officials provided an overview of their efforts to address these concerns, emphasizing the need for community partnerships to enhance neighborhood security. This discussion struck a chord with me as I live in a neighborhood that has faced similar challenges, and it was reassuring to see law enforcement proactively addressing these issues.
In addition, infrastructure was another critical topic. The officials discussed plans to upgrade public transport systems and improve road conditions, which are pertinent to many residents. As someone who regularly commutes via public transport, I found this issue particularly relevant. The discussions highlighted the significant investment needed to undertake these projects, which raised questions about budgeting and funding sources.
Relevance of Personal Issues
During the meeting, I specifically listened for references to the issues I care about, such as the need for improved pedestrian pathways and increased green spaces within our neighborhoods. I was pleased to hear local advocates voice these concerns, and officials acknowledged them as they shared future plans for fostering community wellness through green initiatives. Yet, I felt that not all concerns raised by citizens were adequately addressed, indicating a need for more robust dialogue and responsiveness from local officials.
Presentation of Local Issues
Issues presented at the town hall meeting were discussed openly, with local government representatives providing data and insights while encouraging community members to voice opinions and ask questions. A notable feature of the meeting was its interactive nature, allowing attendees to engage in a dialogue rather than merely listening to reports. This format seemed to foster a sense of community, as many spoke candidly about their experiences and concerns.
Representation and Community Involvement
I left the town hall meeting with mixed feelings about representation. While there were a variety of voices present—representatives from different ethnic backgrounds and professions—the demographic homogeneity of the attendees struck me. Some issues unique to minority communities appeared underrepresented during discussions.
Moreover, the level of involvement observed among community members varied considerably. A small section of the audience was actively engaged, asking questions and providing personal insights, while many remained passive observers. This raises questions about how effectively local government reaches out to ensure that all community voices are heard, particularly those of marginalized populations.
Local Government Awareness
One of the questions I grappled with during and after the meeting was whether local government officials truly understood the priorities of our community. While they appeared knowledgeable and responsive, my observations indicated a disconnect between some community issues and the officials' focus areas. The officials seemed aware of broader concerns but lacked in-depth familiarity with grassroots issues that could inform their policy priorities.
This disconnection was evident in the final segment of the meeting, where several citizens expressed frustrations about feeling ignored or overlooked by their elected officials. The officials' responses, while well-meaning, lacked genuine accountability, which could have fostered greater trust from the attendees. The meeting concluded with a promise to further address raised concerns in future sessions, but whether this will translate into meaningful change remains to be seen.
Attendance and Community Engagement
Attendance at the town hall meeting was relatively moderate. While it was heartening to see engaged community members, I couldn’t help but lament the absence of a larger turnout. The numbers seemed to reflect not only a lack of interest but perhaps a sense of disillusionment with local governance. If residents do not feel their voices will impact decisions, they might choose not to engage, perpetuating a cycle of disconnection.
Conclusion
In conclusion, my experience attending the town hall meeting offered profound insights into the local governance process. While several relevant issues were brought to the forefront and publicly discussed, the evaluation of community engagement and representation revealed potential areas for improvement. The relationship between citizens and their local government should be reciprocal—one thriving on transparency, accountability, and active participation. As community members, we all must strive to contribute our voices and perspectives to ensure that local governance is truly representative of and responsive to the needs of the entire community. Striving for greater diversity in participation could enhance both the issues addressed and the effectiveness of our local government.
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References
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This essay serves as a reflection of the town hall meeting experience and analysis of memory concepts relevant to the discussions therein.