Explain the concept of learned helplessness. How does it develop? ✓ Solved

Learned helplessness is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when an individual experiences a lack of control over the outcome of a situation, leading to a feeling of helplessness and passive resignation. This concept was first studied by psychologists Martin Seligman and Steven Maier in the 1960s through experiments with dogs. The researchers found that when dogs were subjected to uncontrollable shocks, they eventually stopped trying to escape, even when an opportunity presented itself to do so. This behavior demonstrated that the dogs had learned to be helpless, believing that their actions would not change their predicament (Seligman, 1975).

The development of learned helplessness typically unfolds through a series of experiences where an individual faces unavoidable stressors or challenges. Initially, the individual may attempt to change or escape the situation. However, when these efforts prove futile over time, the person becomes conditioned to the idea that their actions are ineffective, leading to a cessation of effort in similar future situations (Maier & Seligman, 1976). Psychological theories suggest that this process can occur in various contexts, such as education, relationships, and the workplace, where persistent failure can instill a sense of helplessness.

People who have learned to be helpless exhibit different behaviors compared to those who have not. Consequently, individuals with learned helplessness tend to show reduced motivation, poorer problem-solving skills, and a more negative outlook on life. Studies have indicated that this phenomenon is linked to various mental health issues, such as depression and anxiety. For example, a student who experiences repeated failures in school may come to believe that their efforts are futile, resulting in decreased academic performance and increased likelihood of dropping out (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978).

In contrast, individuals who have not learned helplessness tend to exhibit resilience. They approach challenges with the mindset that their efforts can lead to success, often utilizing various strategies to overcome obstacles. This sense of self-efficacy allows them to maintain motivation and find alternative solutions even when faced with adversity (Bandura, 1997). The concept of self-efficacy, developed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the belief in one’s ability to perform tasks and achieve goals, which is essential for escaping the cycle of learned helplessness.

In conclusion, learned helplessness is a significant psychological concept linked to an individual’s perception of control over their environment. It develops through experiences of uncontrollability and leads to behaviors and attitudes that can hinder personal growth and achievement. Understanding this phenomenon is crucial for identifying ways to restore agency and resilience in those affected by it.

Myers and Diener studied happiness. What myths did they dismiss about happiness? What did they find out about who is happy and who is not and why?

In their research on happiness, psychologists Ed Diener and David Myers explored various myths surrounding the nature of happiness and its determinants. One prevalent myth is the belief that happiness is primarily dependent on external factors such as wealth, success, or physical attractiveness. They found that while these factors can influence happiness to some degree, their impact is often overstated. Many studies indicate that once a certain level of income is reached, additional wealth does not significantly correlate with increased happiness (Diener & Seligman, 2004).

Another myth is the idea that happiness is solely a personal attribute, existing only within the confines of an individual’s disposition. Diener and Myers found that happiness is significantly influenced by social relationships and community ties. Strong social support and the quality of interpersonal relationships are critical for overall well-being. Individuals with close friendships and family connections often report higher levels of happiness (Myers, 2000).

Moreover, Diener and Myers discovered that happiness is also associated with a positive outlook and an ability to adapt to changing circumstances. Individuals who embrace optimism tend to experience higher levels of satisfaction in life, demonstrating a resilience that enables them to thrive despite setbacks (Diener, 2000). They also noted that cultural background plays a significant role in perceptions of happiness. Different cultures may prioritize various values, such as individualism versus collectivism, affecting how happiness is defined and pursued.

In summary, Diener and Myers highlighted the multifaceted nature of happiness, emphasizing that it is not solely determined by material gains or personal characteristics but significantly influenced by social connections, optimism, and cultural context.

Define and provide an example for the following terms: halo effect, fundamental attribution error, propinquity, self-disclosure, and stereotyping.

The halo effect is a cognitive bias where the perception of one positive trait leads to the assumption of other positive traits. For instance, if someone is physically attractive, people may also perceive them as intelligent and friendly, even without evidence to support those assumptions (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977).

The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency for individuals to overemphasize personal characteristics in interpreting others' behaviors while underestimating situational factors. An example of this would be assuming a coworker is lazy for arriving late to work, without considering possible external factors, such as traffic or a family emergency (Ross, 1977).

Propinquity is the physical or psychological proximity between individuals that enhances the chance of forming a relationship. For example, students who share the same classroom or workplace are more likely to become friends due to their frequent interactions (Festinger et al., 1950).

Self-disclosure involves revealing personal information to others, which can enhance intimacy and trust in relationships. A person might share their fears and aspirations with a close friend, fostering a deeper bond and understanding between them (Derlega & Grzelak, 1979).

Stereotyping involves generalizing traits or characteristics to individuals based on their group identity, often leading to oversimplified and inaccurate assumptions. For example, assuming that all teenagers are rebellious based on the behavior of a few can lead to misunderstanding and prejudice against an entire group (Allport, 1954).

References

• Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Addison-Wesley.
• Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87(1), 49-74.
• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W.H. Freeman.
• Derlega, V. J., & Grzelak, J. (1979). Self-disclosure: An experimental analysis of the effects of disclosure of personal information on attraction to the discloser. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(7), 1104-1111.
• Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 34-43.
• Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Beyond money: Toward an economy of well-being. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(1), 1-31.
• Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950). The spatial ecology of group formation. Journal of Psychology, 20, 227-239.
• Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). The Halo Effect: Evidence for Unconscious Alteration of Judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(4), 250-256.
• Myers, D. G. (2000). The funds, friends, and faith of happy people. American Psychologist, 55(1), 56-67.
• Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 173-220). Academic Press.