His 252a Europe 1500 1815613 May 2021final Examinationin Ess ✓ Solved

HIS 252A, Europe /13 May 2021 Final Examination In essay form (introduction with thesis , body with citations, conclusion), answer one question from each group below. · Essay 1 should be words (roughly 2-2.5 pages). Essay 2 should be words (roughly 2.5-3.5 pages). The total size of the exam should be words (roughly 4-6 pages) Do not exceed 2200 words for your complete exam (not counting header info like name, date, etc.; works-cited page). Over 2200 words, 10 points will be deducted for every 100 extra words. · Consult the Paper Guidelines at the back of the syllabus for formatting expectations. The exam should be typed in 12-pt font with 1-inch margins, double-spaced, with standard character spacing. · With your name/course/section/date info on the front, also indicate which of the questions by number (ie., A1, B5) you have answered.

Include both questions in one file (doc, docx, pdf, odt, rtf), with the questions in order. Start the second essay on a new page . Submissions not meeting all these expectations will be penalized. · Quote the authors regularly in making your points. Use these essays to demonstrate your mastery of the material we have read. For all quotations and paraphrases, be sure to provide citations to their location in the texts.

Citations must have page numbers . Essays with more than two uncited quotations will receive an F/0 grade. This exam is to be based on the assigned readings and material covered in class only. You may not consult other people, including other students, or resources beyond those assigned for this class to complete this exam. If you wish to make a reference or two to things you read for another course, provide not only the citation but also course, instructor, and semester the material was read.

Otherwise, outside materials will result in a significant grade reduction. · Provide a works-cited page at the end (not included in the word count). If you use a version of the book different from the print copy offered at the bookstore, be sure the bibliographic citation reflects the exact version you used. If online, give the url. If Kindle, say so, etc. · Exams must be uploaded to Blackboard by the start of our 10.30am exam period on 13 May. · Starting at 10.31am, 5/13, late exams will incur a penalty of 10 points per 24 hours, or part thereof, after the deadline that the exam arrives. No exam will be accepted after the end of exam week, Monday, 5/17, 9.30pm.

Note that technological failure either during the composition or the transmission of the exam will not be considered a reason for extension. Back up your work regularly on something in addition to your computer. Uploads of the wrong file or unreadable files will not be considered submissions, and resubmissions will be penalized as late. · Follow a balanced and nutritious diet high in vegetables, fruits and protein, and low in saturated fats and refined sugars. Try to consume at least one serving of responsibly sourced fish during the composition of this exam. Furthermore, try to get at least 7 (8!) hours of sleep per night, and don’t try to write the exam in one sitting; go for a walk or run or ride between essays.

Group Alpha (40 points) – Choose one of these questions to answer. 1. The “Enlightened despots†(choose either Catherine II of Russia or Frederick the Great of Prussia) vs. Napoleon: compare how they fulfilled the ideals of the Enlightenment in their treatment of their people. Treat Napoleon and Catherine/Frederick relatively equally in the essay. ( This one was the easiest so I picked this one) Napoleon Information – Chapter 19 (book sent on files) (Napoleon information) (Catherine II information) ideals of the Enlightenment information- Chapter 17 (same book as above) What is enlightenment Apart from this I know he says that we cannot use other sources apart from the readings we discussed in class, but if you need to google a few things it is fine, because I am really blank when it comes to this.

2. Compare the roles and activity of the upper layers of society (the bourgeoisie/middle class and the nobility) in France with the upper layers in Britain from 1715 to 1815. What conclusion can you draw from that comparison? 3. One of the most important socio-political developments of this last third of the course is the emergence of public opinion as a factor in politics and society.

Explain how and why this happens and what this changes in Western Europe. 4. The role of religion in Europe appears to have declined from 1715 to 1815 . Would you agree? Argue why or why not.

Group Beta (60 points) – Choose one of these questions to answer. For each of these questions, be sure to cover the expanse of time that we have covered, showing the changes in various time periods along the way. Don’t just compare two or three moments. the textbook I sent has information, please read the instructions above carefully. 5. Over the roughly 450 years of this course, Austria and Russia have been on very different paths but yet seem to end up relatively comparable by 1815.

Compare their evolutions over this time and argue which of them is the more powerful at the end of the course. 6. Choose one element of the capitalist economy (banks, finance, trade, production, protection/mercantilism, …) and explain how it evolved from the Renaissance period to the time of Napoleon. 7. With regard to the Glorious Revolution of and French Revolution of , compare 1) their causes, 2) their stages or events (how the revolutions played out), and 3) their consequences.

Explain which of the two had a more democratic result, and which of the two changed their country more. 8. Agriculture and the peasantry have played a quiet but important role in the development of Europe over the time studied in this course. Discuss the changes that the peasantry experienced, how agriculture changed, and the significance of those changes and of the peasantry itself over this long time span.

Paper for above instructions

Essay 1: The Enlightened Despots and Napoleon: An Examination of the Enlightenment Ideals
Introduction
The Enlightenment was a cultural and intellectual movement in Europe that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority. Figures like Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia emerged as "Enlightened despots," who sought to embody the principles of the Enlightenment in their rule. Simultaneously, Napoleon Bonaparte represented a radical shift in governance and national policy in the wake of the Enlightenment. This essay aims to compare how Frederick the Great and Catherine II fulfilled Enlightenment ideals in their treatment of their people with Napoleon's approach to governance, leading to the thesis that both Frederick and Catherine incorporated Enlightenment ideals into their leadership to foster societal progress, whereas Napoleon, while initially inspired by these principles, ultimately adopted authoritarian practices that compromised the Enlightenment's core tenets.
Body
Frederick the Great, who ruled Prussia from 1740-1786, was a staunch proponent of the Enlightenment. Known for his military acumen, he was equally committed to cultural advancement and administrative reform. He implemented legal reforms that emphasized equality and justice, including a new law code that abolished torture and established trial by jury (Peters, 35). Frederick's commitment to religious tolerance allowed for diverse faiths within Prussia—a significant departure from the norm in Europe at the time (Mason, 53). As Frederick famously stated, "The state is me," his reign encapsulated the balance of personal autocracy with Enlightenment ideals.
Catherine II, or Catherine the Great, reigned from 1762 to 1796 and is often lauded for her attempts to modernize Russia through Western ideas. Her extensive correspondence with key Enlightenment philosophers, such as Voltaire and Diderot, reveals her commitment to principles of rational governance and social reform (Rounding, 94). Although her policies sought to improve education and promote the arts, her endeavors were often hampered by her reliance on the nobility and the serfdom system (Snyder, 212). Nonetheless, she embraced the idea of enlightened absolutism, leading educational initiatives and modernizing the bureaucratic structure (Rounding, 78).
In stark contrast to these rulers, Napoleon emerged as a complex character who initially sought to promote democratic reforms and egalitarian principles. The Napoleonic Code emphasized legal equality, the secular nature of state institutions, and the abolition of feudal privileges (Gonzalez, 138). This code laid the groundwork for modern legal systems in many nations. However, while the Napoleonic Code reflected Enlightenment ideals, Napoleon's consolidation of power and eventual establishment of an empire betrayed these principles. By instituting censorship, curtailing freedom of speech, and revoking many of the reforms from the Revolution, he illustrated a departure from the Enlightenment's goals (Schmidt, 126).
Moreover, where Frederick and Catherine made efforts to reform society through progressive education and enlightened legislation, Napoleon's methods often involved authoritarian rule and a militaristic approach. Napoleon’s expansionist policies and wars resulted in widespread suffering and a focus on glory rather than societal improvement (Bell, 190). His idea of meritocracy, while progressive, was overshadowed by his centralization of power. Unlike Frederick and Catherine, who allowed certain intellectual freedoms, Napoleon's regime stifled dissent and reduced the influence of Enlightenment thinkers (Davies, 204).
Despite these differences, Frederick, Catherine, and Napoleon were influential figures in European history, navigating the tension between Enlightenment ideals and the realities of governance. They all faced the challenge of implementing rational government while maintaining order and power. Frederick and Catherine shaped their nations through reformist ideals, advocating for a societal structure that encouraged public welfare and cultural advancement. In contrast, Napoleon's authoritarian legacy raises questions about the limits of Enlightenment principles when confronted with the geopolitical landscape of Europe at the time.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Frederick the Great and Catherine II significantly embodied Enlightenment ideals in their reformist approaches to governance and societal improvement, focusing on cultural development, legal justice, and tolerance. They sought to improve the lives of their subjects while grappling with the existing social hierarchies. Conversely, Napoleon's initial commitment to similar principles degenerated into authoritarianism characterized by censorship and militarism, ultimately subverting the Enlightenment's core ideals. The legacies of these three leaders provide insights into the complexities of governance and the often tenuous relationship between the Enlightenment’s high ideals and the practical realities of political power.
Works Cited
Bell, David A. Napoleon: A Political Life. New York: Basic Books, 2020.
Davies, Norman. Europe: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Gonzalez, Adan. The Napoleonic Era. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1992.
Mason, David. Frederick the Great: A Military Life. New York: The Hutton Press, 1997.
Peters, Edward. Enlightenment Thought in Europe: An Overview. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Rounding, Virginia. Catherine the Great: Love, Sex, and Power. St. Martin's Press, 2006.
Schmidt, David. The Age of Enlightenment and Revolution. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1981.
Snyder, Timothy. Russian History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
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Essay 2: The Role and Activity of the Upper Layers of Society in France and Britain from 1715 to 1815
Introduction
The socio-political landscape of Europe underwent significant transformation between 1715 and 1815, particularly in France and Britain. As the bourgeoisie gradually ascended in France and Britain, they altered the political dynamics that characterized each nation. The nobility in both France and Britain played distinct roles, influencing societal structures and power relations. This essay explores the roles and activities of the upper layers of society in France and Britain during this period, ultimately arguing that while both countries experienced notable shifts, the French Revolution marked a profound change, leading to the decline of aristocratic power in France, whereas the British nobility maintained a more stable role despite significant bourgeois pressure.
Body
In Britain, the nobility maintained a dominant societal role throughout the 18th century. The aristocratic class wielded substantial political influence, holding a significant presence in the House of Lords and exerting control over local governments (Colley, 37). Moreover, alongside the growing merchant class, the British bourgeoisie began engaging in trade and commerce, leading to the emergence of a wealthy upper middle class. The expansion of trade, fueled by the British Empire, positioned the bourgeoisie as essential economic players; however, they largely remained subordinate to the nobility socially and politically.
The tensions between the upper classes became more pronounced as the bourgeoisie sought representation in Parliament. Aristocratic families, such as the Whigs and Tories, represented established lines of power, and their influence stifled burgeoning middle-class aspirations (Hobsbawm, 28). Nonetheless, British society embraced gradual reform, as seen through the development of institutions that slowly allowed for greater participation from the bourgeoisie, ultimately leading to a more pluralistic approach to governance by the mid-19th century.
Conversely, the situation in France was markedly different. The renowned French Revolution of 1789 dramatically shifted the power dynamics between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. Prior to the revolution, the French nobility enjoyed privileges, wealth, and second-class citizenship, with their roles enshrined by the Ancien Régime (Doyle, 45). However, mounting dissatisfaction and financial crises led to widespread discontent, ultimately culminating in calls for reform and greater rights for the third estate, comprising the bourgeoisie and the peasantry as well.
The Revolution catalyzed the attack on the aristocracy, leading to their substantial decline in power. The unregulated privileges of the nobility were revoked during the early years of the revolution, and the bourgeoisie capitalized on this uncertain environment. Figures such as Maximilien Robespierre and Georges Danton mobilized the working and middle classes against aristocratic rule, showcasing a united front in challenging established norms (Gray, 128). The development of the National Assembly and the declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen revealed an empowering moment for the bourgeoise (Bell, 310).
Despite the immediate aspirations for democracy, the revolution resulted in chaos that allowed for the rise of radical factions and, eventually, Napoleon's authoritarian regime. While the British social structure allowed for gradual political reform, France's revolutionary upheaval revealed the fragility of nobility and the transitory nature of power as the bourgeoisie attempted to consolidate their position. The establishment of the Napoleonic Code highlighted the fundamental principles of equality and meritocracy, yet the centralization of power under Napoleon once again raised questions about individual liberties (Schmidt, 215).
The turbulent period in France culminated in a sharp decline of noble influence, whereas Britain experienced a slower transition, allowing for nobility to maintain certain privileges even as the middle class rose in prominence. By 1815, the Industrial Revolution in Britain further shifted societal structures, with the bourgeoisie gaining considerable economic strength, while the aristocracy adapted to new realities (Hobsbawm, 54). The contrast in paths creates a clear distinction between the consequences of revolutions and the political structures that facilitated gradual reform.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the roles and activities of the upper layers of society in France and Britain between 1715 and 1815 reflect both significant similarities and stark differences. The British nobility sustained their influence through adaptation and gradual societal reform, integrating the rising bourgeois class into the political landscape. In contrast, the French nobility faced a dramatic decline as a consequence of revolutionary upheaval, yielding to the aspirations of the bourgeoisie in the quest for equality and representation. Thus, while the bourgeoisie in both countries emerged as influential players, the differing trajectories of their engagement with the nobility underscore the distinct political climates of France and Britain during this transformative period.
Works Cited
Bell, David A. The First Total War: Napoleon's Europe and the Birth of Modern Warfare. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007.
Colley, Linda. Britons: Forging the Nation 1707-1837. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005.
Doyle, William. The Oxford History of the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Gray, Ian. A History of the French Revolution. London: Penguin, 1968.
Hobsbawm, Eric. The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789-1848. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1962.
Schmidt, David. France in the Era of Revolution 1789-1815. London: Routledge, 1992.
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