Memorychapter 6psychology ✓ Solved
MEMORY Chapter 6 PSYCHOLOGY DEBORAH M. LICHT MISTY G. HULL COCO BALLANTYNE 1 Meet The Conductor In 1985, conductor Clive Wearing (pictured here with his wife Deborah) developed a brain infection—viral encephalitis—that nearly took his life. Clive recovered physically, but his memory was never the same. An Introduction to Memory (part 1) Encephalitis The red area in this computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT) scan reveals inflammation in the temporal lobe.
The cause of this swelling is herpes simplex virus, the same virus responsible for Clive’s illness. An Introduction to Memory (part 2) Memory Refers to information the brain receives, stores, and may retrieve for later use Not completely understood but a basic agreement on general processes involved An Introduction to Memory (part 3) MEMORY: ENCODING, STORAGE, AND RETRIEVAL Encoding Includes the process through which information enters the memory system Occurs when stimuli associated with events are converted to neural activity that travels to the brain Involves two possible paths: memory system entry or loss of stimuli An Introduction to Memory (part 4) MEMORY: ENCODING, STORAGE, AND RETRIEVAL Storage Includes process of preserving information for possible recollection in the future Retrieval Refers to the process of accessing information encoded and stored in memory An Introduction to Memory (part 5) WORLD MEMORY ATHLETES Brains of memory champions are not wired but trained to excel in memory tasks.
Heightened activity in specific brain areas occurred in memory competitors’ brains. Activity seemed to be associated with use of an imagined order after flipping through them just once. An Introduction to Memory (part 6) LEVELS OF PROCESSING Memory can also be conceptualized from a processing standpoint. Shallow Intermediate Deep Stages of Memory (part 1) One of the most influential is the information-processing model, which suggests that memory operates in a series of stages. This model, first developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, suggests that these stages represent a flow of information.
Stages of Memory (part 2) SENSORY MEMORY Sensory memory can hold vast amounts of sensory stimuli for a sliver of time. Short-term memory can temporarily maintain and process limited information for longer periods (about 30 seconds, if there are no distractions). Long-term memory has essentially unlimited capacity and can hold onto information indefinitely. Stages of Memory (part 3) Eidetic imagery Comes fairly close to photographic memory Involves young children who have the ability to "see" image or object for as long as several minutes after It has been removed from sight Echoic imagery Captures very subtle changes in sound Lasts from about 1 to 10 seconds Stages of Memory (part 4) How long does iconic memory last?
Stages of Memory (part 5) SHORT-TERM MEMORY Duration Maintenance rehearsal Chunking Duration of Short-Term Memory Distraction can reduce the amount of time information remains in short-term memory. When performing a distracting cognitive task, most people were unable to recall a letter combination beyond 18 seconds. Information from Peterson and Peterson (1959), Figure 3, p 195. Duration: Amount of time information is maintained and processed in STM influenced by distractions by other cognitive activities Limited capacity Maintenance rehearsal: Technique of repeating information to be remembered, increasing the length of time it can be held in short-term memory Chunking: Grouping numbers, letters, or other items into meaningful subsets as a strategy for increasing the quantity of information that can be maintained in short-term memory 13 Stages of Memory (part 6) SHORT-TERM MEMORY Chunking Grouping numbers, letters, or other items into meaningful subsets as strategy for increasing the quantity of information that can be maintained in short-term memory Stages of Memory (part 7) WORKING MEMORY Active processing of memory in short-term memory Maintenance and manipulation of information in the memory system Stages of Memory (part 8) Model of Working Memory 16 SOCIAL MEDIA AND PSYCHOLOGY MULTITASKING AND MEMORY Media multitasking has been linked with diminished academic performance.
Texting and Facebook use while studying – lower GPA Frequent media multitasking – worse performance on math and English achievement So… academic performance? Research findings suggest that digital distractions do have the potential to impair memory and learning. Social media may impact working memory. What do you think? Agree?
Disagree? Why? Stages of Memory (part 9) COMPONENTS OF WORKING MEMORY Phonological loop Responsible for working with verbal information for brief periods of time Visuospatial sketchpad Where visual and spatial data are briefly stored and manipulated Central executive Directs attention, makes plans, and coordinates activities Determines what information is used and what is ignored Episodic buffer Forms the bridge between memory and conscious awareness Stages of Memory (part Stages of Memory (part 11) Explicit memory Type of memory you are aware of having and can consciously express in words or declare, including memories of facts and experiences. Semantic memory Memory of information theoretically available to anyone, which pertains to general facts about the world; a type of explicit memory.
Stages of Memory (part 12) Episodic memory Record of memorable experiences, or “episodes,†including when and where an experience occurred; a type of explicit memory Flashbulb memory Detailed account of circumstances surrounding emotionally significant or shocking, sometimes historic, event 21 Stages of Memory (part 13) IMPLICIT MEMORY Memory of something one knows or knows how to do May be automatic or unconscious PROCEDURAL MEMORY Unconscious memory of how to carry out variety of skills and activities; type of implicit memory Following his bout with encephalitis in 1985, Clive could still read music and play the piano, demonstrating that his procedural memory was not destroyed. Researchers documented a similar phenomenon in a professional cello player who battled herpes encephalitis in 2005 (Vennard, 2011, November 21).
22 Improve Your Memory: Try This Take 15 seconds and try to memorize the seven words below in the order they appear. puppy stop sing sadness soccer kick panic Now close your eyes and see how many you recall. How did you do? Stages of Memory (part 14) IMPROVING YOUR MEMORY Mnemonics Mnemonics help us translate information into a form that is easier to remember. Method of loci Mnemonic device in which person visualizes items to be learned with landmarks in some familiar place 24 Stages of Memory (part 15) IMPROVING YOUR MEMORY Automatic and effortful processing Maintenance rehearsal Elaborative rehearsal Hierarchical structures Massed practice Distributed practice How many of these strategies have you tried?
How many worked? Didn’t work? Automatic and effortful processing: Requires work; intentional Maintenance rehearsal: Involves repeated rehearsal of information to be learned; increases length of time information held in short-term memory Elaborative rehearsal: Connects information to knowledge in long-term memory; deep level of encoding Hierarchical structures: Arranges materials in meaningful system of categories and subcategories Massed practice Cramming Distributed practice: Separating study or practice sessions Influenced by culture and beliefs 25 Stages of Memory (part 16) Benefits of adequate sleep Readies brain for memory formation Increases potential for newly acquired memory retention Strengthens, conditions, and consolidates fear memories; helps in distinguishing between threatening and non-threatening Reduces emotional reactions to events Impact of sleep deprivation Associated with increased risk for heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes May interfere with learning STUDY SMARTER Start studying Recall details (mnemonics) Organize information (hierarchical structures) Make connections (elaborate rehearsal) Give yourself some time (distributed practice) Get some rest!
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 1) WHAT CAN YOU RETRIEVE? Retrieval cues Stimuli that aid in retrieval of information that is difficult to access Priming Stimulation of memories as result of retrieval cues in environment Retrieval and Forgetting (part 2) RECALL AND RECOGNITION Recall Retrieving information held in long-term memory without explicit retrieval cues; more difficult than recognition Recognition Matching incoming data to information stored in long-term memory; just have to identify information, rather than come up with information Retrieval and Forgetting (part 3) SERIAL POSITION EFFECT Items at the beginning and the end of a list are more likely to be recalled. Primacy effect Recency effect Retrieval and Forgetting (part 4) Encoding specificity principle Godden and Baddeley asked participants to learn a list of words in two contexts: underwater and on dry land.
Context-dependent memories are easier to access when the encoding and retrieval occur in similar contexts. The participants had an easier time recalling words when learning and recalling happened in the same setting (learning underwater and recalling underwater, or learning on dry land and recalling on dry land). Source: Godden and Baddeley, Retrieval and Forgetting (part 5) Mood and memory The deeper the processing, the greater the likelihood of retrieval. The origin of a memory provides a host of retrieval cues. Mood congruence Memory is facilitated when physiological and psychological conditions are similar at time of encoding and retrieval.
Retrieval also easier if content of memory corresponds to present emotional state Retrieval and Forgetting (part 6) HOW EASILY WE REMEMBER: MEMORY SAVINGS Ebbinghaus First to quantify effect of relearning Noted the reduced time taken in relearning Bowers People who have knowledge of language (non-explicit) from early life often show a “memory savings†when trying to relearn language as adults. Retrieval and Forgetting (part 7) HOW EASILY WE FORGET: MEMORY SLIPS EXPLAINED Ebbinghaus First to demonstrate how rapidly memories vanish Encoding failures Cause of forgetting dependent on stage of memory processing at instance of memory failure Retrieval and Forgetting (part 8) HOW EASILY WE FORGET Memory slips explained Storage failure and memory decay Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (retrieval failure) Highly superior autobiographical memory Retrieval and Forgetting (part 9) Ebbinghaus’s curve of forgetting Ebbinghaus discovered that most forgetting occurs within 1 hour of learning and then levels off.
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 10) Reliability of Memory (part 1) MISINFORMATION EFFECT Memories can be changed in response to new information. Eyewitness accounts can be altered by variety of factors that follow an event to be recalled. Reliability of Memory (part 2) FALSE MEMORIES Would you believe that looking at photoshopped pictures can lead to the creation of false memories? In one study, it was discovered that participants could “remember†hot air balloon rides they never took after looking at doctored photos of themselves as children on balloon rides. CONTROVERSIES The debate over repressed childhood memories The APA and other organizations have investigated repressed memory and offered several conclusions: The repressed memory debate should not detract from child sexual abuse issues.
Most sexual abuse victims have at least some abuse memory. Memories of past abuses can be forgotten and remembered at a later date. People do create false memories of experiences they never had. There is not a complete understanding of how accurate and flawed memories are formed. The Biology of Memory (part 1) Exploring the causes of memory failure in cases of amnesia can aid in the understanding of the biological basis of memory.
Amnesia can result from either physical or psychological conditions. Two different types and degrees of amnesia Anterograde Retrograde The Biology of Memory (part 2) RETROGRADE AND ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA Retro means “before,†so retrograde amnesia is the inability retrieve memories for events that occurred before an amnesia-causing injury. Antero means “after,†so anterograde amnesia is inability to form memories for events that occur after an injury. The Biology of Memory (part 3) Memory is a complex system involving multiple structures and regions of the brain. Memory is formed, processed, and stored throughout the brain, and different types of memory have different paths.
43 The Biology of Memory (part 4) ROLE OF THE HIPPOCAMPUS Research findings The hippocampus is essential for creating new explicit but not implicit memories. Explicit memories are processed and stored in other parts of the brain, including the temporal lobes and areas of the frontal cortex. The hippocampus plays central role in laying down new memories but does not serve as ultimate destination. The Biology of Memory (part 5) LONG-TERM POTENTIATION Refers to the increased efficiency of neural communication over time, resulting in learning and the formation of memories May be biological basis for many kinds of learning Demonstrated on Aplysia (sea slug) Appears to be related to Alzheimer’s disease Neurofibrillary tangles Amyloid plaques Smart Slug Studying the neurons of sea slugs, researchers have observed the synaptic changes that underlie memory.
Long-term potentiation occurs when sending neurons release neurotransmitters more effectively, and receiving neurons become more sensitive, boosting synaptic strength for days or even weeks. 45 The Biology of Memory (part 6) WHERE MEMORIES LIVE IN THE BRAIN—A MICRO PERSPECTIVE Alzheimer’s disease Progressive, devastating brain illness that causes cognitive decline, including memory, language, and thinking problems. Neurofibrillary tangles Amyloid plaques NATURE AND NURTURE Why Alzheimer’s? Alzheimer’s disease can result from a nature and nurture combination. Some forms of the disease are inherited.
People who have a first-degree relative (a parent, sibling, or child) with Alzheimer’s have a higher risk for developing the disease. APOEε4 Environmental factors can also influence the development and progression of the disease. Obesity, sedentary life style, standard American diet, air pollution The Biology of Memory (part 7) FACTS ABOUT MEMORY LOSS There is no definitive way to know whether you or a family member will suffer from a neurocognitive disorder. Studies of both animals and people have linked physical exercise to a variety of positive changes in the brain. Intellectually engaging activities such as reading books and newspapers, writing, drawing, and solving crossword puzzles have been associated with a lower risk of memory loss.
Being socially active and hooked into social networks may reduce the risk of developing dementia. There is no definitive way to know whether you or a family member will suffer from a neurocognitive disorder: Most cases result from a complex combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Studies of both animals and people have linked physical exercise to a variety of positive changes in the brain, including enhanced blood flow, increased thickness of the cortex. and less aged-related deterioration of the hippocampus (Polidori, Nelles, & Pientka, 2010). Intellectually engaging activities such as reading books and newspapers, writing, drawing, and solving crossword puzzles have been associated with a lower risk of memory loss (Hertzog et al., 2009; Wang, Karp, Winblad, & Fratiglioni, 2002).
Being socially active and hooked into social networks may reduce the risk of developing dementia (Fratiglioni, Paillard-Borg, & Winblad, 2004). 48 The Biology of Memory (part 8) CHRONIC TRAUMATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY (CTE) CTE is a progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by a single or repeated blow to the head. CTE affects athletes of many types, combat war veterans, and many others who experience head trauma. The symptoms, which may not appear for months or years after the injury, include changes to memory, emotions, thinking, and personality. It can also impair memory, movement, and the ability to plan and carry out everyday tasks. Watch Josh Foer's TED talk video on memory (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
Paper for above instructions
Understanding Memory: An In-Depth ExplorationMemory is a cornerstone of cognitive psychology, disregarding which the complexity of human consciousness would remain inexplicable. The phenomenon of memory incorporates vast processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. This essay aims to provide an in-depth understanding of these processes and the intricate mechanisms underlying human memory while examining research findings, real-world implications, and ways to enhance memory retention.
1. Mechanisms of Memory
1.1 Encoding
Encoding is the initial step in the memory process, where information enters a memory system through the conversion of sensory inputs into neural activity in the brain (Licht et al., 2023). This process is essential for forming lasting memories. Encoding can take several forms, including visual (imagery), phonological (sound), and semantic (meaning). Thereby, the depth of processing influences how well the memory is retained; deeper processing generally leads to better retention (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).
1.2 Storage
Once encoded, the next step is storage, which involves preserving information for potential recollection. Memory is typically viewed in three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory captures vast amounts of stimuli for a fraction of a second, while short-term memory temporarily maintains a limited amount of information (usually around seven items) for about 30 seconds unless actively rehearsed (Peterson & Peterson, 1959). Long-term memory, in contrast, has a theoretically unlimited capacity and can store information indefinitely.
1.3 Retrieval
Retrieval is the process through which stored information is accessed, which can either be recalled or recognized. Recall requires searching through memories without explicit cues, while recognition involves matching incoming data with previously stored information (Tulving, 1985). The efficiency of retrieval can be significantly enhanced by utilizing retrieval cues, enhancing the likelihood of successful recollection.
2. Types of Memory
Understanding the two main types of memory, explicit and implicit, adds another layer to our comprehension of memory systems. Explicit memory, or declarative memory, refers to memories that can consciously be recalled, such as facts and personal experiences. Implicit memory, however, involves skills and habits that are performed without conscious recall, like riding a bike (Squire, 2004).
2.1 Explicit Memory
Explicit memory is subdivided into two types: semantic memory, which encompasses general knowledge of the world, and episodic memory, which relates to specific personal experiences. The ability to draw upon episodic memories is often influenced by emotional context and multi-sensory cues, making them profoundly rich and detailed (Cahill & McGaugh, 1998).
2.2 Implicit Memory
Implicit memory is pivotal for learning motor skills and habits and remains largely unaffected by amnesic conditions. Neurological studies have shown that this type of memory operates through systems not governed by the medial temporal lobe, which is primarily responsible for explicit memory formation (Squire & Zola-Morgan, 1991).
3. Forgetting and Memory Failure
Forgetting is an essential aspect of the memory process, facilitating the clearance of outdated or irrelevant information. The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve illustrates that considerable memory loss occurs shortly after learning and tapers off over time (Ebbinghaus, 1885). If encoding fails, the information cannot be stored, leading to memory lapses. Factors like interference and stress can also affect retrieval, contributing to memory failure (McGeoch, 1932).
4. Memory Enhancement Strategies
To bolster memory retention, various techniques can be employed.
4.1 Mnemonics
These are strategies that assist in the encoding and retrieval of information. For instance, the method of loci and acronyms are classic mnemonic devices that convert abstract information into more tangible and relatable forms (Bower, 1970).
4.2 Distributed Practice
Spreading out study sessions over time rather than cramming has been shown to be more effective for long-term retention (Ebbinghaus, 1885). This method, termed spaced repetition, takes advantage of the spacing effect, which optimizes the encoding process.
4.3 Elaborative Rehearsal
Connecting new information to existing knowledge significantly enhances encoding depth. This approach encourages meaningful associations, resulting in improved retrieval capabilities (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).
5. The Role of Sleep
Research highlights that sleep is critical for memory consolidation. During sleep, the brain resets and integrates new information, making it easier to retrieve later (Diekelmann & Born, 2010). Conversely, sleep deprivation can severely impede cognitive functions, including learning and memory retention (Walker, 2017).
6. Implications of Memory Research
Memory research bears significant real-world implications, especially in educational settings. Understanding how memory works can help educators develop effective teaching strategies that align with cognitive principles. Additionally, the research is crucial in fields like eyewitness testimony and trauma recovery, where the reliability of memories can deeply affect legal and psychological outcomes (Loftus, 2005).
Conclusion
Memory is a complex and multifaceted process fundamental to human cognition. By understanding its mechanisms, types, and the factors influencing both retention and forgetting, we can implement effective strategies to enhance memory. Advances in memory research continue to inform educational practices, psychological therapies, and insights into the workings of the human brain.
References
1. Bower, G. H. (1970). Analysis of a mnemonic device: The method of loci. Psychological Bulletin, 74(1), 72-104.
2. Cahill, L., & McGaugh, J. L. (1998). Mechanisms of emotional memory: Interactions between the amygdala and hippocampus. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 8(2), 290-299.
3. Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671-684.
4. Diekelmann, S., & Born, J. (2010). The memory function of sleep. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(2), 114-126.
5. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Über das Gedächtnis: Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie. Duncker & Humblot.
6. Fratiglioni, L., Paillard-Borg, S., & Winblad, B. (2004). Aging and dementia: A prospective study of the role of social networks in dementia risk and cognitive decline. European Journal of Neurology, 11(2), 75-79.
7. Licht, D. M., Hull, M. G., & Ballantyne, C. (2023). Memory. In Psychological Principles (Chapter 6).
8. Loftus, E. F. (2005). Eyewitness testimony. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 1-32.
9. McGeoch, J. A. (1932). Forgetting and the law of disuse. Psychological Review, 39(5), 250.
10. Squire, L. R., & Zola-Morgan, S. (1991). The medial temporal lobe memory system. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 14(1), 195-226.
This synthesis not only highlights essential concepts related to memory but emphasizes the crucial interplay between the mechanisms of memory and their implications for our daily lives and understanding.