Nature Versus Nurture in Developmental Science ✓ Solved

Another dynamic theme in developmental science is nature versus nurture, also expressed as genetics versus environment. It can be challenging to determine what is genetic and what is environmental since children receive 50% of their genes from parents but also are embedded in the environment strongly mediated by the family.

The word embedded is often used because it more adequately describes the interdependence of a person with the environment. This is similar to Heidegger’s (1962) descriptions of people as being in the world, a mutuality where the individual being is continually making, changing, and influencing the world and conversely the environment is making, changing, and influencing the individual. The environmental–genetic interaction is hard to pull apart because the two things are not separate. For example, in addictions treatment, primary and secondary are tightly connected. As another example, the connection between parent behavior and child behavior (i.e., anxious parent and anxious child) may just as readily reflect a genetic transmission as well as or instead of an environmental effect (McAdams et al., 2014, p. 1139).

Counselors should cautiously examine assumptions when making causal attributions for a client issue on either the nature or nurture side. Are Martha’s eating disorder and her academic giftedness due to heredity or the environment? How much is Harry’s heart attack due to “bad” genes or “bad” health behaviors? Counselors examine the evidence-based material and realize that problems have biopsychosocial origins and solutions.

Whole sections on fitness, psychology, and nutrition attest to the consumer’s intrinsic motivation to develop in some way. Consider that many people never learn to read, swim, play the piano, sing in tune, cook, and accurately draw without books or instruction on reading, swimming, music, voice, cooking, and drawing. Our heredity comes with capacities for wonderful skills, but they must be nurtured by the environment.

Conduct Disorder (CD) is characterized by pervasive behavior that violates the rights of others or major societal norms (APA, 2013). To diagnose CD, three symptoms must be present within the past 12 months with one recurring symptom in the past 6 months (APA, 2013): (1) aggression to people and animals; (2) destruction of property; (3) deceitfulness or theft; and (4) serious violation of rules (APA, 2013). For a more detailed explanation, please consult your DSM-V.

Erik Erikson proposed a stage-based developmental theory that identified specific challenges or crises that need to be resolved in the process of healthy development. The adolescent years coincide with Erikson’s fifth stage of development, for which the primary task is the search for identity. According to Erikson, adolescents are driven to figure out who they are and where they are going; that is, they have an inherent need to internalize their self-value and find their place in the world.

During a relatively short period of human growth, adolescents transition from childhood to adulthood; along with this transition come a multitude of changes in physical, emotional, and psychological processes. Erikson (1968) described the challenge of this growth period as identity versus role confusion. Positive resolution of this developmental stage means an adolescent can transition to adulthood with a clear sense of fidelity—a foundational component in healthy relationships in all areas of life.

The cohesive sense of self that emerges from this stage means the adolescent, now moving into adulthood, develops an ability to appreciate differences in others and within himself or herself. There is a clarity of one’s own identity, direction, and purpose, which in turn supports transition to the next developmental stage, for which the primary challenge is intimacy.

Negative resolution of this developmental stage can lead to role confusion—a state in which the individual is unsure about his or her place in society. Failure to effectively internalize identity and develop a firm sense of self can affect not only the young person’s immediate developmental processes but also intimate relationships in the short and long term.

To navigate this important developmental stage, adolescents often explore aspects of self and others in ways they previously did not. Some of these behaviors may be misconstrued or dismissed as simply adolescent rebellion, when in fact they are important steps in personal development. For example, what may superficially appear as a rejection of parental or cultural values previously embraced may in fact be an important step to internalizing these very same beliefs.

This process of internalization of identity is an important aspect in empowering individual development and supporting the cohesive identity during adolescence. During the exploration process, adolescents may try on different identities before finding one that fits well for them. There may be many starts and stops along the way, and perhaps even the appearance of regression as an adolescent readopts previous identity-based behaviors following rejection of a recent exploration.

However, to assume such a pathway is regression would be incorrect. In fact, it has been suggested that this is, in fact, an important aspect of identity development. James Marcia (1966, 1980) suggested that the process of identity development can be subdivided into four statuses: diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement.

These statuses differ from stages with respect to their existence on a continuum, with each defined by the relative levels of exploration and commitment to identity; the depth and complexity of these increases with each status. Diffusion is marked by low exploration and low commitment. Adolescents in this stage have not evaluated their opportunities or direction.

Foreclosure is marked by some level of commitment but a lack of exploration. Adolescents in this stage have accepted the likelihood of certain roles and values, but they have not yet explored options beyond those externally imposed by parents and other caregiving adults in their lives.

By contrast, moratorium is marked by low commitment and high exploration and is the time most often associated with the identity crisis of adolescence. During this time, options and alternatives are more actively explored, with little or no commitment to a single pathway.

The last status—achievement—is the resolution to the crisis; it is when the adolescent has explored options and made a commitment to the identity he or she has chosen. Progression through identity exploration and development—whether viewed from the broad scope of Erikson’s theory or from the more specific approach of Marcia—is supported or hindered by environmental influences.

Parental and social reactions to adolescent exploration can have a significant impact on the manner in which the aspects of self are perceived, retained, and potentially incorporated. For example, an adolescent whose primary cultural affiliation is collectivist in nature may experience greater difficulty progressing through exploration and commitment if he or she gravitates toward a more individualistic identity.

A counselor must take into consideration both the external and internal influences on identity development during this pivotal time. Last, it is important to remember that identity achievement is a beginning, not an end; it provides a foundation for the transition to young adulthood, during which the internalized self is further examined and evaluated, and identity is tweaked in a conscious, deliberate manner. In essence, adolescent identity development provides the basis for continued healthy developmental processes.

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The discussion of nature versus nurture revolves around the intricate interplay between genetic and environmental factors shaping human development throughout the lifespan. This theme is pivotal in counseling, as the origins of behavioral issues often fall within a complex web of biopsychosocial influences. Understanding the necessity for both genetic predispositions and environmental contexts is crucial for a comprehensive perspective on human behavior.

In the realm of counseling, nature and nurture serve as dual lenses through which to view a client’s presenting issues. When addressing a condition such as an eating disorder or chronic anxiety, it is essential for counselors to critically evaluate hereditary and environmental impacts that shape clients' experiences and challenges (Capuzzi, 2016). This nuanced understanding fosters a holistic approach to mental health treatment, allowing for interventions that address both genetic predispositions and external influences.

Moreover, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development provides a framework that emphasizes the significance of identity formation during adolescence. His assertion that navigating the identity versus role confusion crisis is critical for psychological health offers a lens to understand the ongoing dilemmas faced by adolescents today (Erikson, 1968). Furthermore, Marcia’s identity statuses expand upon Erikson's work by elucidating the distinct phases of exploration and commitment encountered by adolescents (Marcia, 1980). This theory posits that adolescents iterate between varying levels of exploration and commitment, critical for developing a coherent self-concept.

For counselors, recognizing these identity statuses becomes essential in facilitating healthy development and addressing potential role confusion that can lead to maladaptive behaviors. Many adolescents undergo periods of moratorium, where high levels of exploration coexist with low levels of commitment (Marcia, 1966). These fluctuations should be understood not as pathological but as normal stages of developmental growth. Thus, creating an environment that celebrates exploration while providing structure can empower adolescents to achieve a solid sense of identity.

It is equally important to consider the sociocultural context surrounding adolescents in their exploration for identity. Different cultural values may influence the development of identity, with collectivist cultures posing unique challenges for individuals wanting to assert their individuality within a communal framework (Capuzzi, 2016). Counselors can take an integrative approach, incorporating knowledge of cultural dynamics to support clients through their identity formation processes.

Additionally, the biopsychosocial model underscores the interconnectedness of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors contributing to mental health outcomes. Counselors equipped with this perspective are better positioned to discern the origins of behavioral issues and tailor interventions that acknowledge multifaceted contributions to client experiences (McAdams et al., 2014).

Furthermore, the impact of parental dynamics on adolescent exploration cannot be overstated. Parents serve as the initial socialization agents, directly influencing their children’s perceptions of self-worth and identity (Erikson, 1968). A supportive parental figure may ease the identity exploration process, whereas a lack of support may contribute to heightened levels of anxiety or role confusion during adolescence. Thus, counselors should also involve family dynamics in therapy when appropriate, recognizing the significance of the familial support system.

The potential for regression during the identity development process must also be incorporated into counseling practices. Adolescents may cycle through identity statuses, sometimes appearing to go backward rather than forward. However, these regressions could indicate critical self-exploration stages rather than failure in development, highlighting the necessity for patience and understanding from counselors (Marcia, 1980).

In conclusion, understanding the interconnectedness between nature and nurture is vital for effective counseling practices. By incorporating insights from developmental theories such as those articulated by Erikson and Marcia, counselors can help clients navigate complexities surrounding identity formation and address the underlying influences shaping their experiences. This holistic understanding equips adolescents with the tools necessary to forge ahead with resilience, self-acceptance, and agency, ultimately leading to healthier developmental outcomes.

References

• Capuzzi, M.D.S. D. (2016). Human Growth and Development Across the Lifespan: Applications for Counselors. [VitalSource Bookshelf].
• Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
• Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and Validation of Ego Identity Status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3(5), 551-558.
• Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in Adolescent Development. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (pp. 159-187). New York: Wiley.
• McAdams, D. P., de St. Aubin, E., & Logue, K. (2014). The Power of the Generative Idea: A Case Study of the Subjective Origins of a Generative Life. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 8(1), 1139-1150.
• American Psychological Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
• Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and Time. New York: Harper & Row.
• Harter, S. (1999). The Construction of the Self: Developmental and Sociocultural Foundations. New York: Guilford Press.
• Schwartz, S. J., Dubow, E. F., & Harnish, R. J. (2008). An Ecological Perspective on the Role of Context in Adolescent Risk Behaviors. In G. R. Adams & M. D. Berzonsky (Eds.), Blackwell Handbook of Adolescence (pp. 125-150). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
• Steinberg, L. (2014). An Introduction to Adolescent Development. In Adolescence (pp. 13-34). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.