Part Ii System Implementationchapter 4 Defining Performance And Choo ✓ Solved

Part II: System Implementation Chapter 4: Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach Chapter 5: Measuring Results and Behaviors Chapter 6: Performance Analytics Chapter 7: Rolling Out the Performance Management System 4-1 Chapter 4 Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach Overview Defining Performance Determinants of Performance Performance Dimensions Approaches to Measuring Performance 4-3 Company Spotlight Sprint uses five core dimensions to define what successful performance looks like Both task and contextual performance are measured Includes: Employees write behavioral examples of how they have performed on each dimension Employees are evaluated not only on results, but also on how they are achieved through working with others 4 Defining Performance Performance is: Behaviors and actions What employees do 4-5 Defining Performance Performance is: Results and Products The outcome of employee behaviors 4-6 Defining Performance 4-7 Behaviors Labeled as Performance Are… Evaluative Negative Neutral Positive Multidimensional Many different kinds of behaviors Advance or hinder organizational goals 4-8 Behaviors Are NOT Always… Observable Measurable 4-9 Results or Products May Be Used… To infer behavior As proxy for behavioral measure 4-10 Determinants of Performance Performance = Abilities and other traits X Knowledge and skills X Context 4-11 Determinants of Performance 4-12 Abilities and Other Traits Cognitive Abilities Personality Stable Motivational Dispositions Physical Characteristics and Abilities 4-13 Knowledge and Skills Job-Related Knowledge Skills, Attitudes and Malleable Motivational States 4-14 Declarative Knowledge Information about Facts Labels Principles Goals Understanding of task requirements 4-15 Procedural Knowledge Knowing What to do How to do it Skills Cognitive Physical Perceptual Motor Interpersonal 4-16 Context HR Policies and Procedures (e.g., compensation system) Managerial and Peer Leadership Organizational and National Culture Issues about time and timing of performance Resources and opportunities given to employees 4-17 Abilities and Other Traits, and Knowledge and Skills Knowledge and Skills are more malleable (i.e., easier to change) Individual differences that are easier to change through interventions are called “states†4-18 Motivation Choices Expenditure of effort (â€state†motivation) Level of effort (“state†motivation) Persistence of effort (stable trait) Deliberate practice leads to excellence 4-19 Deliberate Practice Approach performance with goal of getting better and better Focus on performance What is happening?

Why? Seek feedback from expert sources Build mental models of job, situation, and organization Repeat first four steps on an ongoing basis 4-20 Deliberate Practice What are some of the tips to perform deliberate practice well? What are some of the benefits of deliberate practice? 4-21 Context HR policies and procedures Managerial and peer leadership Organizational and national culture Time and timing of performance Resources given to employees 4-22 Implications for Addressing Performance Problems Managers need information to accurately identify source(s) of performance problems Performance management systems must… Measure performance AND Provide information on source(s) of problems 4-23 Performance Dimensions: Types of Multidimensional Behaviors Task performance Contextual performance Prosocial behaviors Organizational citizenship Counterproductive performance Adaptive Performance 4-24 Task Performance Activities that Transform raw materials Help with the transformation process Replenishing Distributing Supporting Contextual Performance Behaviors that Contribute to the organization’s effectiveness AND Provide a good environment in which task performance can occur Differences Between Task and Contextual Performance Task Performance Varies across jobs Likely to be role prescribed Influenced by Abilities Skills Contextual Performance Fairly similar across jobs Not likely to be role prescribed Influenced by Personality 4-27 Why Include Task and Contextual Performance Dimensions in PM System?

Global competition Customer service Teamwork Employee perceptions of PM Supervisor views Cultural differences 4-28 Voice Behavior Behavior that emphasizes expression of constructive challenge with the goal to improve rather than merely criticize Challenges the status quo in a positive way Makes innovative suggestions for change Recommends modifications to standard procedures 4-29 Counterproductive Performance Behaviors and results that are voluntary and violate organizational norms Threaten well-being of the organization, its members, or both 4-30 Examples of counterproductive performance Exaggerating hours worked Gossiping about coworkers and one’s supervisor Cyberloafing Intentionally working slowly and carelessly Staying out of sight to avoid work 4-31 Adaptive Performance Related to an individual’s adaptability to changes Be it in the organization and it’s goals, in the requirements of the job, or the overall work context Becoming increasingly important due to rapid changes 4-32 Examples of adaptive performance Handling emergencies Solving problems creatively Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability Demonstrating cultural adaptability 4-33 Approaches to Measuring Performance Behavior Approach Emphasizes how employees do the job Results Approach Emphasizes what employees produce 4-34 Behavior Approach Appropriate if… Link between behaviors and results is not obvious Outcomes occur in the distant future Poor results are due to causes beyond the performer’s control Not appropriate if… Above conditions are not present 4-35 Company Spotlight Dollar General uses a behavioral approach to measure performance Identified behaviors that serve as indicators of underlying competencies Behaviors are reviewed and utilized to encourage certain outcomes and provide feedback and rewards to staff members 36 Results Approach Advantages: Less time Lower cost Data appear objective Most appropriate when: Workers skilled in necessary behaviors Behaviors and results obviously related Consistent improvement in results over time Many ways to do the job right 4-37 Company Spotlight Basecamp divides its employees workload into six-week work cycles containing 1-2 “big batch projects†and 4-8 “small batch projects†Uses a results-approach to performance planning Company focuses exclusively on getting the project done within 6 weeks and does not measure efficiency or compare actual to estimated costs Team decides how to get the project done 4-38 Measuring Performance What kind of approach to measuring performance is used at Pfizer?

How is the focus on measuring performance based on patient figures different than sales figures? What are some of the benefits of this approach? Is this an appropriate approach to measuring performance for Pfizer? Why or why not? 4-39 Quick Review Defining Performance Determinants of Performance Performance Dimensions Approaches to Measuring Performance 4-40 All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Chapter 10: Fluency Instruction Teaching Reading Sourcebook 2nd edition * Fluency Instruction To develop fluency instruction one must focus on the three elements of fluent reading: accuracy, rate, and prosody. Instructional methods can be grouped into three categories, which in actual practice overlap. A fourth category focuses on the integration of the following: Independent silent reading Assisted reading Repeated oral reading Instructional methods focused on connected text can be grouped into three main categories: independent silent reading, assisted reading, and repeated oral reading.

In actual practice, these categories often overlap. A fourth category focuses on integrated fluency instruction. Assisted Reading Students need to hear proficient fluency models to learn how a reader’s voice can help make sense of text. Methods of assisted reading include Teacher-assisted reading Peer-assisted reading Audio-assisted reading All forms emphasize extensive practice to improve students’ fluency. * Teacher-assisted reading: expressive reading modeled through reading aloud. Peer-assisted reading: paired reading with feedback from more fluent reader.

Audio-assisted reading: expressive reading modeled by computer, CD or audio tape. Repeated Oral Reading Practice is the key to fluency. Repeated readings involve rereading a text to build both automaticity and fluency. (i.e. choral reading, Readers Theatre, etc.) Repeated oral reading is flexible and can be adapted in many ways such as the number of readings; the instructional groupings; the purpose for reading. * Number of readings: Students either read and reread a text until a level of fluency is met or they read text a set number of times (three to four benefit most). Instructional groupings: Include individually with adult, pairs, small groups, or a whole class. Purpose for reading: Students devote each reading to a different purpose ( 1st read: identify character motivation, 2nd read identify setting, etc.).

Methods of Repeated Oral Reading Timed repeated oral reading Self-timed repeated oral reading Partner reading Phrase-cued reading Readers Theatre Radio reading Choral reading Duet reading Echo reading Reading with Recordings * See Research-Based Methods of Repeated Oral Reading chart on page 365 for descriptions of each. Choosing the Right Text Texts students read to develop fluency should be chosen carefully. Criteria include Text length: 50-200 words with shorter passages for beginning and struggling readers and longer passages for better readers; Text content: choosing the right passage can be the key to motivation; the more that words overlap between texts with common themes, the more transfer there is of fluent reading; Level of text difficulty: an essential requirement for repeated oral reading is that the text be at the correct level of difficulty for each student. * Passages should vary in genre with short stories, magazine and newspaper articles, poetry etc.

How to Determine the Level of Text Difficulty Administer a one minute timed reading assessment of a word passage to calculate the CWPM. Calculate the percent of words read correctly or percent of accuracy. (If a student read 112 words correctly out of a 120 word passage: 112 divided by 120 = .93 or 93% accuracy.) Compare the student’s accuracy level with the levels of text difficulty 95-100% Independent level 90-94% Instructional level Less than 90% Frustration level * When to Teach Not every student needs instruction for fluency building. Assessment determines if and what kind of fluency instruction is needed (e.g. accuracy, rate, prosody). In grades K-2, students need daily opportunities to hear text read aloud in a fluent, prosodic manner.

In grade 1, students need daily opportunities for guided repeated oral readings; in grades 2-5, practice reading aloud with corrective feedback. Although most oral reading fluency rates do not significantly increase beyond grade 6, all students need ample amounts of reading practice in a wide range of texts. * Chapter 9: Fluency Assessment Teaching Reading Sourcebook 2nd edition * Fluency Assessment Consists of collecting information about students’ oral reading accuracy, rate, and prosody; Provides an overall estimate of a student’s reading proficiency; Is a strong predictor of success in reading comprehension; Is a key to preventing reading difficulties; Provides information to guide instruction and improve student outcomes. * Assessment of Oral Reading Fluency The combination of oral reading rate and accuracy is the oral reading fluency (ORF).

The assessment tool that is used most for measuring ORF is Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM). ORF CBM provides a reliable and valid way to identify students who are at risk for reading failure; identify which students are not making adequate progress given the instruction they receive; identify students’ instructional level; identify which students need additional diagnostic re-evaluation. * CBM is an assessment that includes a set of standard directions, a timing device, a set of passages, scoring rules, standards for judging performance, and record forms or charts. Administering an Oral Reading Fluency CBM Assessment The student reads for one minute from an unpracticed, grade-level passage.

The teacher follows along with a copy of the passage and marks any student errors. The ORF is determined by subtracting the number of errors from the total number of words read. This is expressed as words correct per minute (WCPM). To monitor progress, the scores can be recorded on a graph. The graph’s visual form is helpful in interpreting the scores and in helping students see their growth. * Oral Reading Fluency Performance Expectations One way to set standards for fluency performance is to compare students’ ORF scores to the National norm.

National norms provide WCPM scores for students in grades 1-8 during three different assessment time periods a year. (fall, winter, spring) The norms are listed as percentile scores. (90,75, 50, 25, and 10) These norms can help indicate whether a student’s fluency growth meets grade-level expectations or is increasing at a normal rate. * See the Oral Reading Fluency Norms chart for grades 1-8 (Hasbrouck and Tindal 2006) on page 331. Diagnosis of Dysfluent Reading Teachers must gather more in-depth information to determine the area of weakness that is causing the fluency problem. Common causes of dysfluency include deficits in phonemic awareness, decoding, vocabulary, language syntax, and content knowledge.

A “speed-accuracy†trade off occurs when students slow down because they are too concerned with accuracy; make many mistakes in an attempt to read text too quickly. * Assessment of Prosodic Reading Unlike rate and accuracy, prosody is more difficult to measure reliably, but it is often important to assess. To measure prosodic reading, the teacher listens to a student orally read an independent-level passage and then compares the characteristics of the student’s prosodic reading to a rating scale or rubric. Prosodic reading rubrics may include stress, phrasing, intonation, expression, pauses, attention to punctuation, etc. * See the Prosody Assessment Rating Scale on page 334. When to Assess Except for first grade, students should be screened at the beginning of the year and monitored three times a year. (fall, winter, and spring) Monitoring for those not making adequate progress should be at least one or two times a month.

Less is known about the usefulness of ORF screening and monitoring of adolescent students. The average levels of oral reading fluency stabilize at around 150 WC for students at the end of 6th-8th grades, when reading grade level texts. * ORF and Upper Grade Students Some researchers believe that Maze CBM may be a better predictor of upper-grade students’ future reading performance than ORF CBM. In Maze CBM, a student reads a passage silently rather than aloud; at about every seventh word the student must choose the word that makes the most sense in the sentence from a group of three possible words. This cloze type assessment appears to be slightly more valid than ORF for its relationship to comprehension. * In grades 4 and up, comprehension begins to depend more on content knowledge, vocabulary, and knowledge of expository text structures.

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Assignment Solution: Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach

Introduction

Effective performance measurement is crucial for the sustainable growth of organizations. This subject encompasses a broad spectrum of behaviors, outcomes, and systematic practices that contribute to the holistic understanding of employee performance (Kaplan & Norton, 1992). In chapters 4-7 from "System Implementation" by Choo, various facets of performance-related definitions, determinants, dimensions, measurement approaches, and best practices are discussed. This paper explores these key themes and provides insight into implementing a robust performance management system (PMS) in organizations.

Defining Performance

Performance can be broadly defined as the execution of tasks and the resultant outcomes. In a corporate setting, performance involves two major components: behaviors and actions, which denote what employees do (Bernardin, 2013). Additionally, it encompasses results and products, the outcomes of those behaviors (Aguinis, 2009).
Performance is complex and multidimensional; it manifests in various forms, influencing organizational success in diverse ways. For example, task performance represents concrete activities that transform raw inputs into products, while contextual performance includes behaviors that support organizational effectiveness, such as teamwork and communication (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993).

Determinants of Performance

Understanding the determinants of performance is fundamental in creating a meaningful PMS. The formula being discussed in Chapter 4 states that Performance equals Abilities and Other Traits multiplied by Knowledge and Skills, all contextualized within the work environment (Choo, 2023).
1. Abilities and Other Traits: These refer to cognitive abilities, personality traits, and physical characteristics that have a stable impact on how individuals perform tasks (Salgado et al., 2003).
2. Knowledge and Skills: This aspect includes job-related knowledge and an individual's skills, attitudes, and motivations (Sackett et al., 2008). Knowledge can be both declarative (knowing “what”) and procedural (knowing “how”), reflected in how effectively one executes their responsibilities (Schunk et al., 2014).
3. Context: The contextual factors can significantly influence performance, encompassing organizational culture, resources available, and HR policies. For instance, managers play a pivotal role in creating conditions conducive for performance through supportive leadership and clear communication (Baker et al., 2006).

Performance Dimensions

The book introduces several performance dimensions, characterized as variations across different jobs and as influenced by behavioral aspects. Key dimensions include:
1. Task Performance: Directly linked to the job role and is typically role-prescribed (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993).
2. Contextual Performance: Encompasses behaviors that are universally beneficial for the organization, such as cooperation, adaptability, and organizational citizenship behavior (Organ, 1997).
3. Counterproductive Performance: Consists of voluntary behaviors that aim to detract from organizational well-being, affecting morale and productivity (Sackett & DeVore, 2001).
By understanding these dimensions, managers can better tailor performance evaluations and rewards, ensuring alignment between individual contributions and organizational goals (Choo, 2023).

Approaches to Measuring Performance

Incorporating effective measurement approaches is critical for any PMS. The two primary methodologies discussed are:
1. Behavioral Approach: This method focuses on assessing how employees execute their jobs and helps gather data about non-tangible variables that contribute to performance (Pulakos et al., 2000). Behavioral measures are valuable when the link between actions and outcomes is not clearly observable.
2. Results Approach: This method emphasizes the outcomes produced by employees and tends to be quicker and less costly to assess. However, it is most effective when employees possess the necessary skills and behaviors to achieve these outcomes (Choo, 2023).

Company Case Studies

Several companies have adopted innovative PMS practices that reflect the principles discussed. For example:
- Sprint measures both task and contextual performance by soliciting behavioral examples from employees, promoting accountability not just for results but also for collaborative processes (Choo, 2023).
- Dollar General employs a behavioral approach to performance measurement by identifying specific behaviors that indicate competencies and linking these to feedback and rewards for staff (Choo, 2023).
- Basecamp runs on a results-based system that allows teams to focus on project completion without micromanaging their efficiency or spending (Choo, 2023).
These examples illustrate the application of performance measurement frameworks in practice, underscoring the importance of aligning performance systems with organizational realities.

Rolling Out the Performance Management System

The book emphasizes the importance of contextual changes, providing managers with essential information to address any performance-related issues effectively (Kaplan & Norton, 2001). For a successful PMS rollout, organizations should consider the following:
1. Communication Strategy: Clearly articulating the purpose, expectations, and benefits of the PMS to all employees is key to engagement and acceptance (Kahn, 1990).
2. Training and Development: Providing training for both managers and employees ensures everyone understands how the PMS works and how to leverage it to enhance performance and productivity (Aguinis, 2009).
3. Continuous Feedback and Adaptation: After the implementation of a PMS, collecting feedback is vital to improve the system continually. Adapting practices based on employee and manager insights leads to more effective performance management (Pulakos et al., 2015).

Conclusion

Successful performance management goes beyond merely evaluating achievements; it involves a multifaceted approach that comprehensively defines, measures, and enhances productivity and behaviors in the workplace. By considering the outlined determinants, dimensions, and measurement techniques, managers can create a PMS that not only enhances employee performance but also fosters a culture of continuous improvement and engagement.

References

1. Aguinis, H. (2009). Performance management. Prentice Hall.
2. Baker, J., & Green, P. (2006). Managerial Leadership: A Practical Guide. McGraw-Hill.
3. Bernardin, H. J. (2013). Human Resource Management: An Experiential Approach. McGraw-Hill.
4. Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). Expanding the criterion domain to include contextual performance. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 72-86.
5. Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (1992). The Balanced Scorecard: Measures That Drive Performance. Harvard Business Review.
6. Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (2001). The strategy-focused organization: How balanced scorecard companies thrive in the new business environment. Harvard Business Press.
7. Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724.
8. Organ, D. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior: It’s construct clean-up time. Human Performance, 10(2), 85-97.
9. Pulakos, E. D., Arad, S., Donovan, M. A., & Plamondon, K. (2000). Adaptable performance in the workplace: Development of a taxonomy of adaptive performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(4), 612-624.
10. Sackett, P. R., & DeVore, C. J. (2001). Job Performance. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 87-111.
The references provide a strong bibliographic foundation for the theoretical concepts discussed, ensuring a well-rounded understanding of performance management.