Please answer questions 3-4 and cite sources. Should be minimum of 15 sentences.
ID: 100337 • Letter: P
Question
Please answer questions 3-4 and cite sources. Should be minimum of 15 sentences.
Explanation / Answer
3.The Tuskegee Syphilis Study or the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male, was a notorious clinical study that has become a byword for racist and unethical medical experimentation. It ran from 1932 to 1972 and involved nearly 400 impoverished and poorly educated African-American men diagnosed with latent syphilis - meaning that they had the infection but showed no obvious symptoms at that stage. For 40 years they were never told they had syphilis and were never treated for it, even when penicillin became a standard cure in 1947. They were simply told they had ‘bad blood’. Among the aims of the study was to see whether syphilis affected black men differently from white men.
For participating in the study, the men received free rides to and from the clinic at Tuskegee University, Alabama. There they were given hot meals and free medical treatment for minor ailments. Any treatments they thought they were also getting for their ‘bad blood’ were actually placebos ,aspirin or mineral supplements. Medical staff allowed nothing to interfere with their work. Even when 250 of the men were drafted for service in the Second World War, strings were pulled to ensure that they remained part of the study instead.
When the study ended in 1972 following a public outcry, only 74 of the original participants were still alive. Twenty-eight men had died of the disease and a further hundred or so of related complications. Forty wives had been infected and 19 children had been born with congenital syphilis. Survivors eventually received financial compensation and in 1997 US President Bill Clinton was moved to declare that ‘on behalf of the American people, what the United States government did was shameful’.It took almost forty years before someone involved in the study took a hard and honest look at the end results, reporting that nothing learned will prevent, find, or cure a single case of infectious syphilis or bring us closer to our basic mission of controlling venereal disease in the United States.The true nature of the experiment had to be kept from the subjects to ensure their cooperation.The sharecroppers grossly disadvantaged lot in life made them easy to manipulate. Pleased at the prospect of free medical care almost none of them had ever seen a doctor before.
4.Germ theory states that many diseases are caused by the presence and actions of specific micro-organisms within the body.
Kosch postulates: In 1890 the German physician and bacteriologist Robert Koch set out his celebrated criteria for judging whether a given bacteria is the cause of a given disease. Koch's criteria brought some much-needed scientific clarity to what was then a very confused field. Koch's postulates are as follows:
The bacteria must be present in every case of the disease.The bacteria must be isolated from the host with the disease and grown in pure culture.The specific disease must be reproduced when a pure culture of the bacteria is inoculated into a healthy susceptible host.The bacteria must be recoverable from the experimentally infected host.
Koch's postulates are still a useful benchmark in judging whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between a bacteria (or any other type of microorganism) and a clinical disease.Their work opened the door to research into the identification of disease-causing germs and potential life-saving treatments.