Please help me with problem 2.136! I included the chapter summary as a reference
ID: 3070938 • Letter: P
Question
Please help me with problem 2.136! I included the chapter summary as a reference. Also, if possible, please type or use a computer as some handwriting has not been decipherable, thank you!!
Medical authorities do not hesitate to say that smoking causes lung cancer The U.S. Surgeon General states that cigarette smoking is "the largest avoid able cause of death and disability in the United States." The evidence f causation is strong-but it is not as strong as the evidence provided by well or designed experiments. SECTION 2.7 SUMMARY . Some observed associations between two variables are due to a cause- and-effect relationship between these variables, but others are explained by lurking variables. . The effect of lurking variables can operate through common response if changes in both the explanatory and the response variables are caused explanatory or lurking variables or both) means that we cannot distinguish . Establishing that an association is due to causation is best accomplished by changes in lurking variables. Confounding of two variables (either their effects on the response variable. by conducting an experiment that changes the explanatory variable while controlling other influences on the response . In the absence of experimental evidence, be cautious in accepting claims of causation. Good evidence of causation requires (1) a strong association, (2) that appears consistently in many studies, (3) that has higher doses associated with stronger responses, (4) with the alleged cause preceding the effect in time, and (5) that is plausible.Explanation / Answer
Married men tend to earn more because of various reasons such as increasing expenses that include expenses of children education, health of the family, house rent, electricity bills, etc., more responsibilities that come up or add up with marriage, need to become independent, coming away from parents or guardians,etc,. All these situations make a married man to earn by his own and some how he tries and starts earning. The unmarried men, on the other hand, are relatively less responsible or even careless. They depend on their parents, friends, etc,. They earn less relatively or even do not earn. They may be concentrating on acquiring and developing the skills, going through various courses, academics, etc,. and may be living or meeting expenses from scholarships and fellowships. These things decide the association between earnings by married and unmarried men.
The one best confounding variable here is age of men. Generally, the married men are more aged than that of unmarried men and so, before they get into their marriages, they will be earning income whereas the unmarried men are still in the process of job search or getting less income or attending various courses for improving skills. So, age of men is the main confounding variable.
Skill set and experience is another confounding variable but that too is a part of age factor, especially, experience and through experience one may become skillful at his work, gets bonuses, increments, promotions, etc,. Exposure of the industry or market may be comparatively more for married men and so, they are likely to identify profitable spots and earn more due to their experience, skills, position and status.