Please briefly comment on the following in relation to Networking: Future Trends
ID: 3591548 • Letter: P
Question
Please briefly comment on the following in relation to Networking:
Future Trends –Pervasive networking, integration of voice, video, and data, new information services.
Concepts of networking –How data moves from one computer to another over a network –Theories of how networks operate 2
Advances in Phone Technology
1984 Consent Decree
US Telecom Act of 1996
Components of a Local Area Network
Network Types (based on Scale) - •Local Area Networks (LAN) - room, building
Layered Implementation of Communications Functions
Comparison of Network Models
Message Transmission Using Layers
Protocols
Message Transmission Example
Types of Standards - –Formal standards, –De-facto standards
Standardization Processes
Major Standards Bodies
Emerging Trends in Networking
Integration of Voice, Video & Data
New Information Services - WWW, ASPs, Future of ASPs
Explanation / Answer
Answer:
Pervasive Networking:
Pervasive networking means that communication networks will one day be everywhere; virtually any device will be able to communicate with any other device in the world. This is true in many ways today, but what is important is the staggering rate at which we will eventually be able to transmit data. Figure 1.6 illustrates the dramatic changes over the years in the amount of data we can transfer. For example, in 1980, the capacity of a traditional telephone-based network (i.e., one that would allow you to dial up another computer from your home) was about 300 bits per second (bps). In relative terms, you could picture this as a pipe that would enable you to transfer one speck of dust every second. By the 1990s, we were routinely transmitting data at 9,600 bps, or about a grain of sand every second. By 2000, we were able to transmit either a pea (modem at 56 Kbps) or a ping-pong ball (DSL [digital subscriber line] at 1.5 Mbps) every second over that same telephone line. In the very near future, we will have the ability to transmit 40 Mbps using fixed point-to-point radio technologies—or in relative terms, about one basketball per second.
The Integration of Voice, Video, and Data
A second key trend is the integration of voice, video, and data communication, sometimes called convergence. In the past, the telecommunications systems used to transmit video signals (e.g., cable TV), voice signals (e.g., telephone calls), and data (e.g., computer data, e-mail) were completely separate. One network was used for data, one for voice, and one for cable TV.
This is rapidly changing. The integration of voice and data is largely complete in WANs. The IXCs, such as AT&T, provide telecommunication services that support data and voice transmission over the same circuits, even intermixing voice and data on the same physical cable. Vonage (www.vonage.com) and Skype (www.skype.com), for example, permit you to use your network connection to make and receive telephone calls using Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP).
The integration of voice and data has been much slower in LANs and local telephone services. Some companies have successfully integrated both on the same network, but some still lay two separate cable networks into offices, one for voice and one for computer access.
The integration of video into computer networks has been much slower, partly because of past legal restrictions and partly because of the immense communications needs of video. However, this integration is now moving quickly, owing to inexpensive video technologies. Many IXCs are now offering a "triple play" of phone, Internet, and TV video bundled together as one service.
New Information Services
A third key trend is the provision of new information services on these rapidly expanding networks. In the same way that the construction of the American interstate highway system spawned new businesses, so will the construction of worldwide integrated communications networks.You can find information on virtually anything on the Web. The problem becomes one of assessing the accuracy and value of information. In the future, we can expect information services to appear that help ensure the quality of the information they contain. Never before in the history of the human race has so much knowledge and information been available to ordinary citizens. The challenge we face as individuals and organizations is assimilating this information and using it effectively.
Today, many companies are beginning to use application service providers (ASPs) rather than developing their own computer systems. An ASP develops a specific system (e.g., an airline reservation system, a payroll system), and companies purchase the service, without ever installing the system on their own computers. They simply use the service, the same way you might use a Web hosting service to publish your own Web pages rather than attempting to purchase and operate your own Web server. Some experts are predicting that by 2010, ASPs will have evolved into information utilities.
Advances in mobile technology:
1900s – Patent for loading coils, increasing transmission distance. Calls can now be made city to city.
1910s – First transcontinental phone call
1920s – Multiple phone calls can be made at the same time
1930s – Phones combine mouthpiece and receiver
1940s – First phone to combine a ringer with a handset
1950s – First transatlantic cable: connects Nova Scotia with Scotland
1960s – First commercial digital transmission system, T1 (Transmission One)
First pager
First long-distance satellite call
First touch-tone telephone
First electronic central office switching system (1 ESS) allows call forwarding and speed dialing
1970s— First portable cell phone call
First use of fiber optics by U.S. military
First digital switch
First public tests of cell phones, which would be approved in 1982
1980s — First commercially available cell phone (cost over $3,000)
1990s – Voice Over Internet Protocols (VoIP) become popular
First flip phone
2000s – First phones with camera capability
First smartphone
First touchscreen smartphones
Innovative, if not practical, first car phone.
One of the earliest car phones dates back to 1910. Swedish engineer Lars Magnus Ericsson installed a phone in his car. He and his wife Hilda used electrical wires to connect the phone to wires on phone poles. According to The Mobile Phone Book: The Invention of the Mobile Telephone Industry, “There were two long sticks, like fishing rods, handled by Hilda. She would hook them over a pair of telephone wires, seeking a pair that were free. When they were found, Lars Magnus would crank the dynamo handle of the telephone, which produced a signal to an operator in the nearest exchange.” Car phones wouldn’t become more common until the 1950s, and were a popular feature of limos.
celitoVoice Features
Today’s celito VoIP system allows our clients to take advantage of features like queue management, conditional forwarding, transfers, automated attendants, disaster recovery. Here are some other benefits of the celitoVoice system.
1984 Consent Decree:
A consent decree is an agreement or settlement that resolves a dispute between two parties without admission of guilt (in a criminal case) or liability (in a civil case), and most often refers to such a type of settlement in the United States. The plaintiff and the defendant ask the court to enter into their agreement, and the court maintains supervision over the implementation of the decree in monetary exchanges or restructured interactions between parties. It is similar to and sometimes referred to as an antitrust decree, stipulated judgment, settlement agreements, or consent judgment. Consent decrees are frequently used by federal courts to ensure that businesses and industries adhere to regulatory laws in areas such as antitrust law, employment discrimination, and environmental regulation.
US Telecom Act of 1996:
The Telecommunications Act of 1996 is the first major overhaul oftelecommunications law in almost 62 years. The goal of this new law is to let anyone enter any communications business -- to let any communications business compete in any market against any other.
Components of a Local Area Network:
Network Adapter
A computer needs a network adapter to connect to a network. It converts computer data into electronic signals. It listens for silence on the network cable and applies the data to it when it has an opportunity. The network access element of its job is called Media Access Control, or MAC. The physical address of every computer on a network is called its MAC address. The MAC address is the network adapter's serial number. Most computers are shipped with the network adapter integrated into the motherboard. However, early PCs didn't include this function and computer owners had to buy it separately and fit it into an expansion slot on the motherboard. These were called "network cards" because they were sold on a separate card. Although network adapters are now integrated, the name network card is still used. The wireless equivalent is called a Wireless Network Interface Controller.
Network Medium
Wired networks need cable. The most common form of cable used in networks is called the "Unshielded Twisted Pair." In PC shops, it is generally just referred to as "network cable" or "Ethernet cable." Ethernet is the most widely implemented set of standards for the physical properties of networks. UTP is so closely identified with Ethernet that it is often given that name. Other cable types used for networks are twin-axial, Shielded Twisted Pair and single-mode and multi-mode fiber optic cable. Wireless networks don't need cable; they send data on radio waves generated by the WNIC
Cable Connectors
In wired networks, the most common form of connector is the RJ45. Every computer with networking capabilities has an RJ45 port. This is sometimes called a "network port" or an "Ethernet port." The RJ45 plug looks like a slightly larger telephone plug and connects the Unshielded Twisted Pair or the Shielded Twisted Pair cable.
Power Supply:
Both wired and wireless networks need a power supply. A wireless network uses the current to generate radio waves. A cabled network sends data interpreted as an electronic pulse.
Hub/Switch/Router
In wired networks, one computer cannot connect to many others without some form of splitter. A hub is little more than a splitter. It repeats any signals coming into one of its ports out onto all its other ports. A cable leads from each port to one computer. A switch is a more sophisticated version of a hub. It only sends the signal on to the computer with the address written in the arriving message. Routers are much more complicated and are able to forward messages all over the world. Larger networks sometimes use routers for their LAN traffic. The wireless networking device is called a "wireless router."
Network Software:
Software on a communicating computer packages data into segments and puts that data into a structure called a "packet." The source and destination addresses of the packet are written into the header of the packet. The receiving computer needs to interpret these packets back into meaningful data and deliver it to the appropriate application.
Network Types:
Network models:
When dealing with networking, you may hear the terms "network model" and "network layer" used often. Network models define a set of network layers and how they interact. There are several different network models depending on what organization or company started them. The most important two are:
Message Transmission Using Layers:
Application Layer:
First, the user creates a message at the application layer using a Web browser by clicking on a link (e.g., get the home page at www.somebody.com). The browser translates the user's message (the click on the Web link) into HTTP. The rules of HTTP define a specific PDU—called an HTTP packet—that all Web browsers must use when they request a Web page. For now, you can think of the HTTP packet as an envelope into which the user's message (get the Web page) is placed. In the same way that an envelope placed in the mail needs certain information written in certain places (e.g., return address, destination address), so too does the HTTP packet. The Web browser fills in the necessary information in the HTTP packet, drops the user's request inside the packet, then passes the HTTP packet (containing the Web page request) to the transport layer
Transport Layer:
The transport layer on the Internet uses a protocol called TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), and it, too, has its own rules and its own PDUs. TCP is responsible for breaking large files into smaller packets and for opening a connection to the server for the transfer of a large set of packets. The transport layer places the HTTP packet inside a TCP PDU (which is called a TCP segment), fills in the information needed by the TCP segment, and passes the TCP segment (which contains the HTTP packet, which, in turn, contains the message) to the network layer.
Network Layer:
The network layer on the Internet uses a protocol called IP (Internet Protocol), which has its rules and PDUs. IP selects the next stop on the message's route through the network. It places the TCP segment inside an IP PDU, which is called an IP packet, and passes the IP packet, which contains the TCP segment, which, in turn,
contains the HTTP packet, which, in turn, contains the message, to the data link layer.
Data Link Layer:
If you are connecting to the Internet using a LAN, your data link layer may use a protocol called Ethernet, which also has its own rules and PDUs. The data link layer formats the message with start and stop markers, adds error checking information, places the IP packet inside an Ethernet PDU, which is called an Ethernet frame, and instructs the physical hardware to transmit the Ethernet frame, which contains the IP packet, which contains the TCP segment, which contains the HTTP packet, which contains the message.
Physical Layer:
The physical layer in this case is network cable connecting your computer to the rest of the network. The computer will take the Ethernet frame (complete with the IP packet, the TCP segment, the HTTP packet, and the message) and send it as a series of electrical pulses through your cable to the server.
When the server gets the message, this process is performed in reverse. The physical hardware translates the electrical pulses into computer data and passes the message to the data link layer. The data link layer uses the start and stop markers in the Ethernet frame to identify the message. The data link layer checks for errors and, if it discovers one, requests that the message be resent. If a message is received without error, the data link layer will strip off the Ethernet frame and pass the IP packet (which contains the TCP segment, the HTTP packet, and the message) to the network layer. The network layer checks the IP address and, if it is destined for this computer, strips off the IP packet and passes the TCP segment, which contains the HTTP packet and the message to the transport layer. The transport layer processes the message, strips off the TCP segment, and passes the HTTP packet to the application layer for processing. The application layer (i.e., the Web server) reads the HTTP packet and the message it contains (the request for the Web page) and processes it by generating an HTTP packet containing the Web page you requested. Then the process starts again as the page is sent back to you.
Standardization Processes:
Standardization or standardisation is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governmentsStandardization can help to maximize compatibility, interoperability, safety, repeatability
Major Standards Bodies:
There are thousands of standards organizations around the world, and they can standardize pretty much anything to make life easier, safer, and more productive. Often, these bodies have agreements to cooperate with each other. They may endorse each other’s standards, build upon them, or purposely avoid duplicating efforts.
ISO:
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was founded in 1947 and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO has three official languages: English, French, and Russian. Its membership comprises national standards organizations, one from each of 163 countries.
Each member represents its country’s standardization activities to ISO and, in turn, represents ISO back to its own country. ANSI represents the United States (more on ANSI later). Even Fiji is a member, participating in 10 ISO technical committees and represented by its Department of National Trade Measurement and Standard
IEC:
EC
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) creates and publishes standards for electrical and electronic technologies. It was founded in 1906 and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. Members of the IEC are called National Committees. Each country can have just one National Committee in the IEC. There are 82 members. ANSI represents the United States.
Countless electronic and electrical products around the world use IEC standards and their corresponding conformity assessment systems. IEC standards help ensure that these products work properly, connect to each other, and perform safely.
ITU:
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is a specialized agency of the United Nations. Its original name was the International Telegraph Union, and it was founded in Paris in 1865. It serves the field of information and communications technology. Now headquartered in Geneva, it has a membership of 193 countries and over 700 private-sector entities and academic institutions. It operates using the six official languages of the United Nations: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
The ITU allocates global radio spectrum and satellite orbits. It also develops technical standards for interconnecting networks and other technologies in international telecommunications. Some of its standards work deals with economic and policy issues as well.
JEDEC:
The Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) is a semiconductor engineering trade organization that also develops standards for the microelectronics industry. It was created around the same time that the IC was invented, in 1958, by the Electronics Industry Association (EIA). EIA had previously helped establish the Joint Electron Tube Engineering Council, which was responsible for assigning and coordinating type numbers of electron tubes. As solid-state electronics evolved, it became time for the council to address semiconductors as well
ANSI:
T
he American National Standards Institute (ANSI) was founded in 1918 and is headquartered in Washington, D.C., with an operational office in New York City. Its mission is “to enhance both the global competitiveness of U.S. business and the U.S. quality of life by promoting and facilitating voluntary consensus standards and conformity assessment systems, and safeguarding their integrity.”
The private, non-profit organization oversees the development of voluntary, consensus-developed standards. It is dedicated to strengthening the U.S. in the global marketplace while ensuring the health and safety of consumers and the environment. Its annual budget is a modest $22 million.
ACM:
Headquartered in New York City, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) was founded in 1947. ACM is dedicated solely to computing. This scientific and educational society has more than 100,000 members around the world from industry, academia, and governments. The current president of ACM is Vint Cerf, well known as one of the “fathers of the Internet” (along with Bob Kahn).
ACM has many special interest groups (SIGs), and some of them address standardization in their fields of interest. For example, one of ACM’s SIGs standardized the Ada programming language.
NIST:
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is part of the U.S. Department of Commerce. It was founded in 1901 as the National Bureau of Standards. In 1988 its name was changed to NIST to include a general technology direction for its standards in addition to its original charter of measurement standards. NIST’s overall goal is to enhance industry in the U.S. through standards-related tools and information to more effectively compete in the global marketplace. NIST standards touch a wide range of technologies including the smart power grid, nanoscience, and semiconductors.
NIST is a non-regulatory (it does not make laws) agency of the government. Its mission is “to promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement science, standards, and technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve our quality of life.” According to the group, “NIST will be the world’s leader in creating critical measurement solutions and promoting equitable standards. [Its] efforts stimulate innovation, foster industrial competitiveness, and improve the quality of life.” NIST’s three core competencies are measurement science, rigorous traceability, and the development and use of standards.
Ecma International
Ecma International is a private, non-profit organization based in Geneva. It enables the creation of standards for consumer electronics (CE) and information and communications technology (ICT). It was formed in 1961 as the European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA). In 1994 it changed its name to Ecma International, dropping the acronym and full capitalization, to signify the global nature of its activities. Today, Ecma’s Web site specifically calls out its versions in the Belorussian and Romanian languages.
Members of Ecma come from industry, academia, and other non-profit organizations. There are more than 60 members, divided into categories that tier the membership fees for them.
CENELEC:
CENELEC is the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization. It was founded in 1973 as a merger of two previous European organizations and is headquartered in Brussels, Belgium. It is a non-profit organization set up under Belgium law and is responsible for standardization in electrotechnical engineering. The European Commission has designated CENELEC as one of the three European Standards Organizations, along with the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
CENELEC’s charter is to produce voluntary European standards that improve trade, enable new markets, reduce costs of compliance, and support the development of a “Single European Market.” European standards foster technology advancement, promote interoperability, ensure consumer health and safety, and help protect the environment.
JEITA
JEITA was formed in 2000 from the merger of two long-standing previous organizations, the Electronic Industries Association of Japan (EIAJ) and the Japan Electronic Industries Development Association (JEIDA). Its charter is to further Japan’s economy by advancing its electronics and information technology industries. JEITA supports manufacturing, trade, and consumption internationally of products from these industries.
JEITA’s mission is “to foster a digital network society for the 21st century, in which IT advancement brings fulfillment and a higher quality of life to everyone.” Its broad interests include computers, assemblies, A/V equipment, radio systems, electronic components, broadcasting equipment, medical electronics, measuring instrumentation, displays, software, and semiconductors.